INTRODUCTION

INDUSTRY BACKGROUND

CONTRIBUTION OF THE SHRIMP INDUSTRY

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 

LACK OF QUANTITATIVE DATA

RECOMMENDATIONS

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

APPENDIX

ENDNOTES
 
 
 
 

"Sustainable development is the management and conservation of the natural resources base and the orientation of technological and institutional change in such a manner as to ensure the attainment and continued satisfaction of human needs for present and future generations. Such sustainable development (in the agriculture, forestry, and fisheries sectors) conserves land, water, plant, and animal genetic resources, is environmentally non-degrading, technologically appropriate, economically viable, and socially acceptable." According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) for obtaining environmentally sound aquaculture practices.⁽¹⁾
 
 

^Introduction

^{Aquaculture is defined as the farming of aquatic plants and animals in land-based, (ponds, raceways, or tanks) or water-based enclosures (cages) in fresh, salt, and/or brackish waters. Aquatic organisms are raised under controlled parameters of salinity, pH, light intensity, and water temperature. Organisms currently farmed include fish, mollusks, crustaceans, and aquatic plants, raised with the goal of enhancing production through interventive methods of regular stocking, feeding, and protection from predators.(2) Aquatic farming is subdivided into three phases of production; hatchery-nursery, maturation, and grow-out.(3) These phases of production originated in the Indo-Pacific Region with the earliest records, artificial hatching of fish, originating in China at around 2000 B.C.}

^{It is believed that aquaculture began with fish staying trapped in potholes when the water receded. These potholes held the fish and water for a short period of time until the local community desired to eat them. Once they learned how the fish entered the potholes, they then learned to feed them with scraps and waste to promote growth. This led to the gradual domestication of fish and the development of aquaculture. A second theory was proposed of aquaculture developing as an extension of rice farming and the manufacture of silk. The silkworm pupae and feces were used to feed the fish.(4)}

^{Over the centuries the Chinese passed down traditional fish culture to succeeding generations who migrated to Taiwan, Thailand, Malaya, Indonesia, and elsewhere in the Indo-Pacific Region. Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) milkfish, (Chanos chanos), catfish (Pangasius sp.), and marine shrimp (Penaeus spp.) were among the first fish and crustacean cultured in the region.(5)}

^{Modern shrimp farming production is attributed to Motosaku Fujinaga, a graduate of Tokyo University, who in the 1930s succeeded in spawning the kuruma shrimp (Penaeus japonicus). He cultivated larvae in the laboratory, and then succeeded in mass producing them on a commercial scale. Through his research and findings published in 1935, 1941, 1942, and 1967, he assisted fishermen and hatcherymen to begin supplying large quantities of juvenile shrimp to farmers, thus increasing farm-raised shrimp production.(6)}

^{Currently, aquaculture, is becoming the world's fastest growing food production method, with an average compound growth rate (APR) of 9.6% since 1984 compared to captured fisheries with a 1.6% growth rate over the same time frame. Global aquaculture production in 1995 totaled 27.8 metric tons and was valued at 42.3 thousand million US dollars. (7) Numerous advancements in the aquaculture industry have facilitated its exponentiation growth. Aquaculture originally developed as a subsistence industry in developing countries associated with food hunter-gatherer coastal fishing communities.}

^{Intensive shrimp farming techniques began in 1986 in direct response to the decrease in global wild shrimp catch.(8) Currently, the production of farmed shrimp is dominated by developing countries located in tropical latitudes. Seven countries produced about 86% of the total shrimp aquaculture harvest, six in Asia and one in Latin America, as detailed in Table I of the Appendix. Ecuador is the number one producer of shrimp for Latin America with an annual output of 130,000 tons.(9) Ecuador produces 60% of the farmed shrimp in the Western Hemisphere and is the second largest shrimp producer in the world.(10) Most of Ecuador's shrimp farms are situated in the Gulf of Guayaquil and the remaining are located further north in Manibi and Esmeralda regions. Shrimp aquaculture production is the third largest source of foreign currency after petrol and bananas for Ecuador.(11)}

^{This paper will address the following three topics concerning shrimp aquaculture in Latin America: contributions of the shrimp industry to developing countries, environmental problems, and recommendations for environmental sustainability.}

^{Industry Background}

^{To understand the potential environmental impact of aquaculture practices, we must comprehend the different methods currently in use in Latin America to farm shrimp. Along with identifying, and prioritizing each in accordance to their actual threat to the environment. Shrimp aquaculture is an important industry to the Latin American region, since so many jobs of different expertise levels are generated either directly or indirectly. Using methods that promote environmental sustainability are of importance to this industry to further promote its growth and productivity in the years to come.}

^{There are three methods of cultivation, currently being used; extensive, semi-intensive, and intensive. Extensive aquaculture was the first method developed in Asia. It evolved from hunter-gatherer coastal fishing communities. They used the mangrove forests for aquatic animal containment, storage, and growth, especially during stormy months when fishing at sea was difficult. For these reasons, some mangrove areas were modified into large trapping ponds for small fish and crustaceans. Extensive culture ponds for polyculture of fish and shrimp evolved, consequently becoming an integrated part of subsistence for these coastal communities. These practices still persist today and account for as much as 22% of all world shrimp farm production.(12)}

^{Extensive primitive ponds exceeded 100 hectares, but modern varieties have greater management control, typically ranging in size from 5 to 20 hectares per pond. Water exchange occurs with the natural tidal cycle and shrimp seeds enter the pond naturally. Stocking density is about 8,000 post larvae per acre. In this system there is no use of mechanical pumping devices. Little or no food is required; the shrimps' food supply comes from the natural productivity of the pond. Cost for inputs and labor are low and it requires minimal capital investment for culture, production costs are modest, generally the lowest in the aquaculture industry. (13) Shrimp production by the extensive method is rather low, although it is the most environmentally sustainable farming practice of the three categories: intensive, semi-intensive or extensive.}

^{When consumer demands increased and consequently higher price levels followed, semi-intensive cultured systems evolved. Higher shrimp prices justified the greater cost of inputs to intensify production. These ponds are usually smaller; a single species is stocked with greater control over stocking density (8,000 to 40,000 post larvae per acre). Whereas in extensive shrimp culture systems the shrimp feed on the organisms that grow naturally in the pond, with semi-intensive culture the farmer must add supplemental feeds, due to higher standing stock of shrimp exceeding the natural carrying capacity of the pond. Shrimp-farmers need pumps, aeration, and control gates to increase water exchange and exclude predators.(14) Shrimp production increases up to 10 folds or more per unit of land area. Today, semi-intensive shrimp culture account for 42% of all world shrimp farm production.(15) Semi-intensive systems are more labor intensive, and also have more serious environmental consequences.}

^{The intensive systems are the most technologically advanced culture systems and were developed in Japan, Taiwan, and the United States, where wild post larvae are not readily available and where land and labor are expensive. Shrimp is stocked at very high densities (40,000-2,000,000 post larvae per acre) requiring greater amount of feed than the semi-intensive. With higher feeding rates, the farmer must also apply greater management efforts to maintain the water quality. Input costs are very high for this type of culture system, requiring greater production yields. Daily water exchange is essential. Due to the higher feeding rates, this method produces pollution of surface and underground water unless wastewater is treated.}

^{The cost to produce shrimp generally rises with increased culture intensity, due to higher stocking densities, feeding rates, and water quality management efforts. The most cost-effective production strategy for any particular farmer depends on the size of the initial capital investment, the cost of available inputs, (fry, feed, labor, fuel, and power, etc.), and potential cost savings realized from economics of scale related to the total area under culture.(16) The intensive system is technology dependent and thus capital intensive.}

^{Extensive, semi-intensive, and intensive shrimp farms are found throughout Latin America. The largest shrimp farms are located in Ecuador, Mexico, Columbia, Panama and Honduras. Smaller ones exist in Peru, Nicaragua, Brazil and Guatemala and some scattered farms in Venezuela, Belize, and Costa Rica. Most new shrimp farms in the Western Hemisphere follow semi-intensive farming practices, with many of these farms being vertically integrated companies that include feed mills, hatcheries, processing plants, and worldwide marketing. The western white shrimp (Penaeus vannamei), constituting more than 80% of the Latin American production.(17) United States, Western Europe, and Japan constitute the primary markets for Latin American shrimp.}

^{Contributions of the Shrimp Industry to Developing Countries in Latin America}

^{Shrimp aquaculture production has strengthened the economy of developing countries in Latin America creating jobs, much needed foreign exchange and wealth to the region. In Honduras, 36 shrimp aquaculture farms employ 13,206 people. In 1994 the industry generated $97million in foreign exchange and it is expected to generate over $104 million in 1995.(18) Even in Colombia, where the industry is not labor intensive, it employs 0.5 to 0.8 workers per hectare of pond, the shrimp industry has created four thousand jobs in rural areas along with 2,000 support service jobs in urban areas. Ecuador is constituted the best case for economic growth, where around 140,000 people are directly employed in the shrimp industry, as artesian, post larvae collectors, farm and hatchery workers and technicians, along with processing plant employees. In addition, another 15,000 are employed in indirect support industries producing feed fertilizer and heavy equipment.(19)}

^{Panama has one of the most efficient economic models. The shrimp industry is well established and a successful sector of the national economy, supplying 1.5% of the total globe culture of shrimp. It also has well-developed financial and banking facilities, supporting infrastructure, feed mills, trained personnel, and processing facilities.}

^{Shrimp aquaculture begun in Panama in 1974 with the commercial development by Ralston Purina of its Agromarina de Panama, S. A. The industry has evolved in three areas of its Pacific coast: the coastal zone of the Bay of Chame, the Bay of Panama and the Bay of Parita. The Bay of Parita in the districts of Aguadulce, Anton and Penonome has the highest concentration of farms. There are over 6,670 hectares currently in production.}

^{During 1997 Panama produced 7,850 tons of farmed shrimp. Wild larvae are not readily available in Panama but the farms are supported by 11 hatcheries with an annual production of over 1.7 billion high quality postlarvae. There are several plants expanding their capacity. The availability of postlarvae will increase by 30% by the year 2000. Panama is the largest exporter of nauplii in the Americas.}

^{Most farms work under semi-intensive conditions with an average production during 1997 of 1.25 tons per hectare. Two crops are harvested a year and due to significant environmental differences between the seasons, two species are cultured. During the wet season the specie of choice is the P. Vannamei and in the dry season P. Stylirostris.}

^{Panama is a good example where the industry, local government and other interested parties have work together. Their Law Fifty-eight and Law Two passed by their joint efforts have many incentives designed to promote the industry, as well as for the reforestation of mangroves. The shrimp industry is the second largest export product for Panama and within one of the top five export products and foreign currency generator for Ecuador, Mexico, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Belize.}

^{However, some negative economic consequences are a result from shrimp aquaculture production. Aquaculture entails converting a "multi-user/multi-use" resource into a "privately owned single use" resource. It creates extensive employment during the construction phase, but few workers are required for grow-out operations. But this statement does not take into consideration the jobs created in the supporting industries such as feed mills, transportation, processing, packaging, marketing, inspection etc. and their multiplying effect on the economy at large.}
 

^{Environmental Problems Associated with Shrimp Aquaculture}

^{Shrimp is the single most valuable seafood product that enters into world trade today with a net worth of about seven billion dollars a year. It is estimated by World Aquaculture Magazine that as of 1997 there where 240,000 hectares of ponds under production. Some of these farms are built in mangrove areas. To accommodate for this high demand farmers intensify their production, thus effecting the environment by surpassing the areas carrying capacity. (20) "Factory Farming," as environmentalists call it, has the potential to deplete soils, reduces genetic stock, degrades coastal ecosystems and local water quality. These problems are mainly associated with pond construction and operation.}

^{As systems are intensified greater feed is needed, requiring greater amount of water exchange to control disease thus affecting the local water resources. Another problem encountered is the construction of larger ponds within the coastal zone hindering mangrove forests. In Ecuador, for example, aquaculture cultivation began in 1968 and by 1988 20% of the existing mangrove forest and 80% of the existing salt marches had been destroyed due to the construction of ponds.(21) This information however is contradicted by the study made by Regis Baldor who found that most of the mangrove destruction was due to urbanization and the use of mangroves for its wood.}

^{To maintain the increase of shrimp production, large quantities of artificial feed, pesticides, chemical additives and antibiotics must be continuously added. These compounds, together with excrement from the shrimp, pollute the wastewater. This wastewater is generally pumped back into the surrounding environment in order to save costs, contaminating coastal waterways, the sea, fresh groundwater supplies, native flora and fauna in adjacent communities. In addition, shrimp pond effluents are often high in organic and inorganic (nitrogen and phosphorous) nutrients, with resulting high biological oxygen demand (BOD) that may cause oxygen depletion in surrounding waters. Leading to a combination of surplus organic matter and increased salinity problems, especially for fish populations and sea life that inhabitant the receiving waterways. Saltwater in the ponds can seep into local groundwater, degrading drinking water and surrounding agriculture land.(22)}

^{Health risks to local communities are attributed to run-offs from shrimp farms. These large scale shrimp farms use a wide variety of pesticides such as malathion, parathlon, azodin, paraquat, endosulfan and butachlor, mixed with antibiotics like terramycin, erythromycin, shrimp excrement and other substances producing a chemical soup. This wastewater is most of the time untreated upon release into the surrounding waterways, creating health risks.}

^{Another associated problem with intensification, is the reduction in life-span of shrimp farms. Their life-span is between five to ten years, but most are forced to shut down within three to five years, as a result of poor management practices. Once the farms are abandoned it is expensive and difficult to rehabilitate the land for other purposes; farming, and mangrove restoration. In Ecuador 15% of shrimp farms are unusable due to poorly managed intensification practices.(23)}

^{There are potential effects to wildlife with all forms of aquaculture. Human activity can be disruptive in the vicinity of breeding colonies and feeding grounds, while the aquaculture facility itself can attract predatory species. However, few studies prove such ecological disruptions.}

^{Another potential problem concerning aquaculture is the leaching from construction materials. Plastic is one such example, containing a wide variety of additives including stabilizers (fatty acids salts), pigments (chromates, cadmium sulphate), antioxidants, UV absorbers (benzophenones), flame retardants (organophosphates), fungicides, and disinfectants.(24) Many of these compounds are toxic to aquatic life, but with their low water solubility, slow rate of leaching and dilution which decrease their effects.}

^{The shrimp industry can create social problems to the local communities. Competition emerges between traditional fishermen, family (peasant) farmers, and entrepreneurial shrimp farmers for the use of good quality coastal land. Greenpeace, reported that modern shrimp farming provides limited employment opportunities for coastal residents. Many of these jobs are seasonal, offering no long-term security.(25) This leads to families being displaced from their rural communities and migrating to cities hoping to find jobs, contributing to the urban migration crisis. These statements are contradicted by published industry information, which indicates the availability of jobs in processing and packaging plants, feed mills, and everyday activities on the aquaculture farms.}

^{Another significant issue is the amount of "fish protein" and "fish oil" required in the preparation of shrimp feed. The primary source of fishmeal is from harvesting wild sea stocks and these stocks are currently at or beyond the maximum sustainable yield.(26) There are strong and diverging positions as to whether the shrimp industry is a net user of fish protein and significant contributor to the depletion of natural resources. The protein transformation issue is very complex and worthy of additional research.}

^{Lack of Quantitative Data}

^{There are several environmental and non-governmental organizations (NGO's) making strong and catasthropic allegations about the intensity and range of environmental problems created by the Latin American shrimp industry to North American and European consumers. Most of these reports appear to be generalizations based on a limited number of actual cases and do not prove to have either the documentation nor the validity required to support their conclusion.}

^{Ecuador has approximately 75% of all the ponds in the Western Hemisphere and is normally targeted by these groups. They built 180,000 hectares of ponds between 1969 and 1995. According to a study published by Icasa (1997) 54,000 hectares of mangrove were lost during the same period. This indicates that even in a worst case scenario only 30% of its farms had been built in the mangrove areas, in fact most of the damage to the mangrove is directly related to the urban expansion in the Golfo de Guayaquil, and wood exploitation. In Colombia where five of the six largest shrimp farms in the Caribbean coast are in production, the net mangrove area has increased.(27)}

^{Improvements in site selection technology, biology and specially feed requirements developed over the last 20 years have reduced the number of ponds being built, at the expense of the mangrove areas, reduced the water exchange required, and decreased the chemical pollutants and nutrients. As presented at the Panama's shrimp conference in October 1998, the technology is in place for the operation of semi-intensive farms with a protein diet as low as 15% and without the need for daily water exchanges.(28)}

^{Recommendations for Environmental Sustainability}

^{Shrimp aquaculture can be environmentally sustainable with the proper design, operation, management, and monitoring. Proper site selection is crucial in order to minimize environmental impact, along with conducting a thorough, honest socioeconomic and ecological impact assessment before proceeding with the implementation. One should ask who benefits or profits and who loses in terms of jobs and income.}

^{Practice and promotion of the proper pond construction is important for sustainability. Buffer strips of mangroves or other trees around ponds can be used to minimize soil erosion along with reducing pond tillage that exposes acid soils. Also minimize stream modifications to prevent soil salinization, land subsidence, and flooding.}

^{The use of a closed or recirculating system for growing shrimp is the best method for protecting the environment. But this system is currently not the most cost effective. With this system water is reused instead of just passing through only once. As a result, water is needed to only fill the tanks at the initial start-up and replacement for water loss due to evaporation. Most indoor recirculation systems allow the grower to maintain more control over the water parameters (light intensity, temperature, etc.).}

^{Closed recirculating systems are composed of four components: the culture chambers, a primary settling chamber, a biological filter, and a final clarifier or secondary settling chamber. Each of these units is important to the system, although some closed designs have eliminated the secondary-settling chamber. Production rates vary considerable and usually depend on the type of system used and the user's expertise. This system has drawbacks due to a high capital investment along with needing a higher level of expertise to operate the system effectively.(29)}

^{One time flow through semi-intensive pond systems can be environmentally sustainable with the use of filter ponds stocked with filter-feeder mussels and nutrient consuming seaweed. This reduces the amount of organic and inorganic waste dumped into the local waterways. Effluent levels are highest during pond drainage, which is done two to three times a year after harvesting.}

^{For sustainability of ponds in semi-intensive and intensive shrimp aquaculture, ponds need to be drained and dried between crops leaving between 5 to 10 days to oxidize organic residues. During this time, the pond bottom is raked to aerate the soil and depressions should be filled with pea gravel. The between-crop interval can be reduced to several days by using a plastic pond liner. This liner can be used for intensive production of P. vannamei, predominate harvested shrimp in North and Latin America.(30)}

^{Water quality needs to also be checked for both semi-intensive and intensive systems to determine oxygen concentration levels, pH, salinity levels, and temperature along with calculating proper exchange rates for the water in the pond. This is important for managing the health of the shrimp and preventing disease and viral outbreaks which in severe cases can kill the entire shrimp population.}

^{Feeder trays are being used in Peru for shrimp aquaculture. This method improves water quality, survival rates, food conversion ratio, and expedites the detection of disease in the shrimp. Efficient methods of growing shrimp are needed in Peru due to the lack of land available for aquaculture. The only land available to grow shrimp under traditional conditions is in a narrow strip 20-30 kilometers wide next to tidal channels and mangrove forests in the extreme northern border in the region of Tumbes. Five thousand hectares of ponds have been built in this area, but natural forest will limit further expansion to an additional 5,000 hectares.(31)}

^{Peru has saved more than 3,000 tons per year of feed. Productivity levels have improved, risks of epizootics have diminished, and the water quality has improved.(32) The use of feed trays in Peru is proving to be successfully protecting the environment.}

^{Along with developing and implementing sustainable aquaculture farming practices, governments should give priority to the development of clear, well formulated regulations at both the national and local levels. They should address the issues of common property rights and the efficient use of resources based on financial, socioeconomic, and environmental sustainability.(33)}

^{Economic incentives and deterrents such as subsidies and taxes can be used to encourage wise use of public land, and common resources, water. Dialogue between government and the private sector is essential to encourage partnerships and participation for developing environmentally sustainable aquaculture practices.}

^{Education, research and training institution must be integrated in the equation. The parties must work together to achieve economic sustainability. Efforts need to be made to break down the current adversary relationship existing between the industry and environmentalist groups. Quantitative data must be obtained to understand the actual environmental problems associated with this industry.}

^{Aquacultural diagnostic test kits should be developed to produce accurate, inexpensive, and easily operable "pool side kits" that even small farmers can use to diagnose diseases before they cause widespread losses and the need to add high quantities of antibiotics. (34) The negative effect on shrimp operations on the environment can be further reduced by introducing cost-effective measures illustrated in the following list.}

^{Improved feed diet, reducing the protein content of the feed from the current 30 to 40% level to Dr. Lawrence recommended 15 to 20%.} 

^{Use hatchery produced disease free postlarvae.}

^{Screen pump intakes}

^{Do not use fresh water from wells in ponds}

^{Carefully manage natural algae growth to promote natural feed and reduce or eliminated daily water exchanges.}

^{Use high quality feed and feed controls such as the "Peruvian Dish", adjusts feeding cycles to minimize waste.}

^{Build settling basins for treating effluents.}

^{Dispose the sediments by environmentally safe procedures.}

^{Release effluents in a way to minimize scouring of pond bottom and discharge channels.}

^{Do not discharge brackish water into fresh water areas.}

^{Integrate the discharge in a multiple process with its surrounding environment. Optimizing the surrounding environment's natural filtering capacity.}

^{Use satellite imaginary to document mangrove growth or loss.}
 

^{It is important to note that aquaculture is not the only or main destroyer of mangroves and pristine wetlands. Urbanization along with over-population and the cutting down of the mangrove for wood products is also contributing to the problem. Nevertheless, the potential threat to mangroves is real and could be substantial.}

^{We need research to clearly document the environmental impacts of shrimp farming in Latin America. An industry protocol must be developed to encourage sustainable shrimp aquaculture practices. The protocol should be the result of joint efforts between the industry, the institution of higher learning, vocational schools, responsible environmental groups and national governments. This effort must be complemented by the implementation of educational training and technology transfer programs.}

^{Environmental and NGO groups need to understand the economic significance of the industry and restrain from exaggerating and extrapolating single or isolated failures. Only by working together with the industry, effective programs can be develop and implemented. The industry today is controlled by highly educated and sophisticated operators who are sensible to the long-term sustainability of the industry, respond to the consumer's growing environmental awareness and will implement sensible cost effective modifications to protect their business and their market.}

^References

^{Avault, James. 1996. Fundamentals of Aquaculture. AVA Publishing Company, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.}

^{Barg, U.C. 1992. Guidelines for the Promotion of Environmental Management of Coastal Aquaculture Development. Food and Aquaculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.}

^{Halger, Mike. 1997. Shrimp Farming-Production and Consumption. GreenPeace.}

^{http://www.greenpeace.org/usa/reports/biodiversity/shrimp/shrmp02.html.
---. The Devastating Delicacy, The Explosion of Shrimp Farming and the Negative Impacts on People and the Environment. 1997. GreenPeace. http://www.greenpeace.org/usa/reports/biodiversity/shrimp/shrmp03.html.}

^{---. The Social Damages Caused by Shrimp Farming. 1997. GreenPeace. http://www.greenpeace.org/usa/reports/biodiversity/shrimp/shrmp04.html.}

^{Landesman, Louis. 1994. "Negative Impacts of Coastal Aquaculture Development." World Aquaculture 25(2): 12-17.}

^{Lawrence, A.L. 1997. Shrimp Feed Management Effect on Effluent Water Quality. http://a-lawrence@tamu.edu.}

^{Lucien-Brun, Herve. 1997. "Evolution of World Aquaculture Production." World Aquaculture 28(4): 21-33.}

^{Menasveta, Piamsak and Arlo Fast. 1997. Shrimp Culture Evolution and Its Impact On Mangroves. http://www.shrimpfarming.org/mangroves-shrimp.htm}

^{Menasveta, Piamsak. 1997. " Mangrove Destruction and Shrimp Cultivation Systems." World Aquaculture 28(4): 36-42.}

^{New, Micheal. 1996. "Sustainable Global Aquaculture." World Aquaculture 27(2): 4-6.}

^{Pillay, T.V.R. 1996. "The Challenges of Sustainable Auaculture." World Aquaculture 27(2): 7-9.}

^{Ratofia, Manny. 1995. "Aquaculture Today-A Worldwide Status Report." World Aquaculture 26(2): 22-27.}

^{Rosenthal, Herald. 1994. "Aquaculture and the Environment." World Aquaculture 25(2): 4-11.}

^{Rumsey, G.L. 1993. Fisheries 18(7): 14-19.}

^{Swan, La Don. 1992. "A Basic Overview of Aquaculture." Technical Bulletin Series #102.}

^{Treece, Gravil. 1996. "Introduction to the Shrimp Industry." For the 1996 Texas Shrimp Farming Short Course.}

^{Tacon, Albert. 1997/98. "Global Trends in Aquaculture and Aquafeed Production International." AquaFEED: 5-21.}

^{Viacava, Moises. 1995. "Feeder Trays for Commercial Farming in Peru." World Aquaculture 26(2): 11-17.}

^{Weidner, Denis, Tom Revord, Randy Wells, and Amir Manuar. 1992. World Shrimp Culture: South America. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland.}

<sup>Wyban, James, and James Sweeney. 1996. "Intensive Shrimp Production in Round Ponds. "CRC Handbook of Mariculture. CRC Press.
1999. "A Review of World Shrimp Farming in 1998." Aquaculture Magazine Buyer's Guide '99: 46.
1995. "Adopt Sustainable Development Principles in Aquaculture. " Aqua Farm News 13(2): 8.
1995. "Aquaculture Wastes." Aqua Farm News 13(2): 1.
"Ecological Impacts of Coastal Aquaculture Developments." Aqua Farm News 13(2): 2-5.
1995. "Go for Environment Friendly Aquaculture." Aqua Farm News 13(2): 11-12.
1995. "Guidelines for the Development of the Environmentally Acceptable Coastal Aquaculture." Aqua Farm News 13(2): 14-18.
1995. World Shrimp Farming Annual Report. Shrimp News International, San Diego, California.</sup>
 
 

 
^APPENDIX

^{Production Average}

^{Heads-on Percent of Growout production Estimated No.Estimated No.}
 
 

Farms	(Metric Tons)	World Total Area	(HA)	(KG/HA)	Hatcheries	Farms
Eastern Hemisphere.
Thailand	210,000	28.06%	70,000	3,000	1,000	25,000
India	70,000	9.35%	140,000	500	150	100,000
Indonesia	50,000	6.68%	200,000	250	300	30,000
Philippines	35,000	4.68%	20,000	1,750	90	2,000
Malaysia	8,000	1.07%	4,000	2,000	100	8,000
Sri Lanka	5,000	0.67%	3,000	1,667	66	1,000
Australia	2,200	0.29%	550	4,000	12	33
Other E.H.	150,000	20.04%	200,000	750	2,000	10,000
E.H. Total	530,000		637,500		3,718	168,833
Average				832
Global percent	71%	71%	73%		89%	98%
Western Hemisphere
Ecuador	130,000	17.37%	160,000	813	350	1,600
Mexico	17,000	2.27%	24,000	708	30	319
Colombia	12,000	1.60%	3,200	3,750	11	14
Honduras	12,000	1.60%	14,000	857	13	90
Panama	8,000	1.07%	8,500	941	11	40
Peru	5,00	0.67%	3,200	1,563	3	35
Brazil	7,260	0.97%	4,320	1,681	15	113
Nicaragua	4,000	0.53%	5,500	727	3	160
Venezuela	7,000	0.94%	2,000	3,500	6	13
Belize	4,000	0.53%	1,200	3,333	1	8
United States	2,000	0.27%	1,000	2,000	8	25
Other W.H.	10,000	1.34%	5,000	2,000	20	200
N.H. Total	218,260		231,920		471	2,617
Average				941
Global Percent	29%	29%	27%		11%	2%
World Totals	748,460	869,470		861	4,189	171,450

 
^{Source: Buyer's Guide and Industry Directory 28th, Edition Aquaculture Magazine page 46}
 
 
 ENDNOTES
 

^{1. 1995. Aqua Farm News. 13 (2): 8.}

^{2. Barg, U.C. 1992. Guidelines for the Promotion of Environmental Management of Coastal Aquaculture Development. FAO Technical Papers 328: 1.}

^{3. Ibid.}

^{4. Avault, James. 1996. Fundamentals of Aquaculture, A Step-by-Step Guide to Commercial Aquaculture. AVA Publishing Company Inc. Baton Rouge, Lousiana. p. 4.}

^{5. Ibid.}

^{6. Treece, Gravil. 1996. "Introduction to the Shrimp Farming Industry."}

^{7. Tacon, Albert. 1997. "Global Trends in Aquaculture and Aquafeed Production 1984-1995." AquaFEED : 5-7}

^{8. Piamsak, Menasverta. "Mangrove Destruction and Shrimp Culture Systems."}

^{9. Halger, Micheal. "The Devastating Delicacy, The Explosion of Shrimp Farming and the Negative Impacts on People and the Environment." Greenpeace. http://www.greenpeace org/usa/reports/biodiversity/shrimp/shrmp02.html.}

^{10. Lucien-Brun, Harve. 1997. "Evolution of World Shrimp Production." World Aquaculture 28(4):28.}

^{11. Ibid.}

^{12. Menasveta, Piamsak and Ario Fast. "Shrimp Culture Evolution and Its Impacts on Mangroves." Shrimpfarming Organization. http:// www.shrimpfarming. org/mangrove-shrimp.htm}

^{13. Treece, Granvil. 1996. "Introduction to the Shrimp Farming Industry." For the 1996 Texas Shrimp Farming Short Course.}

^{14. Ibid.}

^{15. Ibid.}

^{16. Ibid.}

^{17. Lucien-Brun, Herve. 1997. " Evolution of World Shrimp Production: Fisheries and Aquaculture." World Aquaculture 28(4):27.}

^{18. World Shrimp Farming-Annual Report 1995 published by Shrimp News International, San Diego California.}

^{19. Ibid.}

^{20. Halger, Mike. " The Environmental Damage Caused by Shrimp Farming." GreenPeace. http://www.greenpeace. org/usa/reports/biodiversity/shrimp/shrimp03.html}

^{21. Ibid.}

^{22. Ibid.}

^{23. Ibid.}

^{24. 1995. Aqua Farm News. 13 (2): 5.}

^{25. Halger, Mike. " The Social Damages Caused by Shrimp Farming." GreenPeace. http://www. Greanpeace. Org/usa/reports/biodiversity/shrimp/shrmp04.html.}

^{26. Rumsey GL, 1993. Fisheries 18(7):14-19.}

^{27. Bador, Regis. 1997. "Ejemplos de Diseno y Operacion de Camaroneras Semi-Intensive en Armonia Con el Manglar."}

^{28. Lawrence, A.L. " Shrimp Feed Management Effect on Effluent Water Quality." http://a-lawrence@tamu.edu.}

^{29. Swan, La Don. 1992. "A Basic Overview of Aquaculture." Technical Bulletin Series #102.}

^{30. Wyban, James, and James Sweeney. 1993. Intensive Shrimp Production in Round Ponds. CRC Handbook of Mariculture. CRC Press. P. 277.}

^{31. Viacava, Moises. 1995. " Feeder Trays for Commercial Farming in Peru." World Aquaculture. P. 12.}

^{32. Ibid.}

^{33. New, Micheal. 1996. " Sustainable Global Aquaculture." World Aquaculture. P.4.}

^{34. Ratofia, Manny. 1995. "Aquaculture Today - a Worldwide Status Report." World Aquaculture 26(2): 22.}