1 See Tutino (1986) and Reina (1980).

2 Scott (1989: 5). See also Scott (1985 and 1990).

3 On the region's agrarista movement and its leadership, see Friedrich (1977 and 1986). Zacapu submitted a petition for the restitution of communal lands in 1915. Restitution was denied, for lack of adequate titles and evidence of dispossession, but the petition was pursued as an outright grant of land (dotación). In a presidential resolution of October 8, 1925, Zacapu was granted 1600 hectares, much of it from haciendas belonging to the Noriega family, which had dispossessed the villagers of much of their land in the Zacapu marshlands as part of the drainage project which transformed the marshes into productive agricultural land (AGN. CNA. Resoluciones Presidenciales. Volume 28. October 8, 1925.).

4 See Hale (1968).

5 Quoted in Hale (1968: 37).

6 See Fraser (1972).

7 Quoted in Gutiérrez (1984: 20).

8 Quoted in Hale (1968: 227).

9 As Mallon (1995: 94) argues, liberal anti-clericalism often "confused clerical hierarchy with religion and closed off potential articulations between Liberalism and popular culture."

10 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Zacapu. Volume 4. Municipal President of Zacapu to the Ministry of Government. February 26, 1869.

11 Ibid. In the course of the factional conflict so often unleashed by the liberal reform, village factions which favored the privatization of communal lands often voiced similar sentiments in appealing to state officials. Such a faction in the village of San Juan Parangaricutiro, for example, referred to "the disorder and irregularity with which elders of the community administer the lands which belong to all of us" and to the "Oligarchy which the elders called the cabildo exercise over the young." AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Uruapan. Juan Guerrero and others, San Juan Parangaricutiro to the District Prefect. July 5, 1869.

12 Subsequent circulars stipulated that peasants were to receive the small parcels they already cultivated under usufruct rights as private property for free; in practice, state governments often imposed burdensome taxes and fees as part of the privatization process. The rights of tenants to rental lands were reasserted in these circulars as well, although the adjudication of such lands varied from case to case in practice. See Mallon (1995: 98-100).

13 On the other hand, Article 8 of the Ley Lerdo, with reference to the ayuntamientos, exempted from privatization "the buildings, ejidos, and lands dedicated exclusively to the public service of the populations to which they pertained." Article 8 generated much debate as to which lands were subject to privatization. For a detailed analysis of the implications of the Ley Lerdo for the communal property regime, see Fraser (1972); Article 8 is quoted on p. 633. The confusion created by the Ley Lerdo was such that at least some Michoacán officials initially questioned its applicability to the Indian communities. According to an 1865 report of the sub-prefect of Zamora, for example, it was generally believed in his district that the law did not apply to communal property, since the villagers were "proprietors with complete rights of dominion, and not simply usufructuaries or administrators" (quoted in Moreno, 1986: 221). More generally, however, the state pursued the privatization of communal lands with vigor after the return of the liberals to power at the national level in 1867.

14 Tutino (1986: 262).

15 As of 1829, disamortization laws of various types had been enacted in Chiapas, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Jalisco, Mexico, Michoacán, Nuevo León, Puebla, Sonora, Sinaloa, Veracruz, and Zacatecas. Many of the mandated the privatization of cropland and rental lands, leaving the fundo legal, pasture, and woodlands as communal; only the states of Puebla, Sinaloa, and Zacatecas required that all communal land be privatized. See Fraser (1972: 623) and Thomson (1991: 269).

16 On the history of legislation in the state of Michoacán, see Mendoza (1986); Gutiérrez (1984 and 1989); Sánchez Díaz (1988); and Guzmán Avila (1984).

17 Knight (1986: 95).

18 In 1904, for example, the tax assessment of the communal lands of the coastal village of Pómaro was increased from 19,250 to 70,000 pesos (AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Coalcomán. Volume 2. Administrator de Rentas to the Governor of Michoacán. February 3, 1904).

19 Cited in Gutiérrez (1984: 20).

20 See Mendoza (1986: 186-187) and Gutiérrez (1984: 21).

21 Mallon (1995: 25).

22 Thomson (1991: 278-279).

23 Michoacán law required that disputed lands subject to ongoing litigation be excluded from privatization until a legal decision as to ownership was made.

24 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Jiquilpan. Volume 5. David Méndez to the Ministry of Government. June 21, 1902.

25 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Jiquilpan. Volume 5. José Martínez Ramírez and others to the Governor of Michoacán. June 20, 1902.

26 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Jiquilpan. Volume 5. Ministry of Government to District Prefect. July 2, 1902. Various San Pedro residents to the Ministry of Government. July 18, 1902. President of Sahuayo to Ministry of Government. July 23, 1902. Volume 8. José Jesús Martínez and others to Governor of Michoacán. September 9, 1902. Various residents of San Pedro to Governor of Michoacán. August 19, 1902. Volume 3. Various residents of San Pedro to Ministry of Government. September 2, 1904. District Prefect to Ministry of Government. March 2, 1905.

27 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Jiquilpan. Volume 8. Ministry of Government to District Prefect. March 26, 1902. Ministry of Government to various residents of San Pedro Caro. June 19, 1903. Having continued to receive complaints about the distribution of the marshlands, the Ministry of Government appointed an official to carry out a "rectification," a move opposed by the privatization commission and supported by those villagers who had opposed the process or complained of irregularities. The official was able to correct some problems, but did not deal with the central issue of the adjudication of the marshlands. AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Jiquilpan. Volume 3. Governor's Office to District Prefect. August 19, 1905.

28 Sánchez Díaz (1982).

29 Scott (1990: 2, 87).

30 Scott (1990: 4-5).

31 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Coalcomán. Volume 2. Residents of Pómaro to the Governor of Michoacán. Pómaro never did carry out the reform, although some communal lands were sold to neighboring landowners and to a U.S. timber company (Brand, 1960: 180-81).

32 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Uruapan. Volume 21. Representatives of Zacán, Zirostro, Paracho, Cherán, Nahuatzen, Tancítaro, Apo, Peribán, Paricutín. Pamatácuaro, Angahuan, Aranza, Sevina, Corupo, Parangaricutiro, and Tinguïndín to the Governor of Michoacán. June 12, 1869.

33 Ibid.

34 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Uruapan. Volume 23. District Prefect to Ministry of Government. July 4, 1899.

35 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Uruapan. Volume 23. Ministry of Government to District Prefect. May 31, 1899.

36 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Uruapan. Volume 23. Various letters, 1895-1902. The case of San Juan Parangaricutiro is discussed at length in Purnell (1993 and 1994).

37 Periódico Oficial del Estado de Michoacán. Vol. 57. May 19, 1927. Petition of San Francisco de Uruapan for the restitution of its communal lands. April 18, 1916.

38 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Zacapu. Volume 6. Sixto Mayo and Buenaventura Telles to the Governor of Michoacán. April 25, 1896.

39 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Pátzcuaro. Volume 9. Felipe Atanacio to the Governor of Michoacán. January 17, 1871. It is possible that the villagers were referring to the tierras de repartimiento, cultivated land used by individual families under usufruct rights, in claiming that they had already privatized their communal lands.

40 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Pátzcuaro. Volume 9. José Natividad Baltasar to the Ministry of Government. March 29, 1905.

41 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Jiquilpan. Volume 9. Minutes of community meeting. January 23, 1879.

42 See Purnell (1993), chapter 3.

43 Scott (1990: 87).

44 AGN. CNA. Resoluciones Presidenciales. Volume 28. October 8, 1925. The título de composición is cited in the 1925 presidential resolution as being a response to a royal circular of 1836; given this error, the date of the document is uncertain. Beginning in 1591, the Spanish Crown began to require the confirmation of all colonial land titles (Dennis, 1987: 60). Since the document in question is the first to be cited in the resolution, the next document is dated 1661, and all of the other documents are cited in chronological order, it seems most likely that the royal title was issued at some point during the first half of the 17th century.

45 AGN. Tierras. Volume 854. Expediente 2. 1759-67. Volume 1223. Expediente 2. 1792-1802. Volume 2726. Expediente 18. 1572-1791.

46 Bravo Urgarte (1960: 49).

47 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Zacapu. Volume 4. President of Zacapu to the Ministry of Government. February 26, 1869.

48 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Zacapu. Volume 4. Bruno Patino to the Governor of Michoacán. January 15, 1869. Volume 3. Sacramento Torres Yañez and Eduvirgis Martínez to the Ministry of Government. December 31, 1893.

49 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Zacapu. Volume 4. Benito Martínez and others to the Ministry of Government. June 30, 1879. The villagers' proposal that they simply evict the occupants of such land was rejected by the government, which insisted on the use of legal channels to resolve all conflicts.

50 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Zacapu. Volume 4. President of Zacapu to Ministry of Government. July 15, 1870.

51 In Zacapu, for example, Luis Obregón, a government appointee, charged the village almost 1800 pesos for his work in preparing the survey of the community's lands (AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Zacapu. Volume 3. Unsigned statement on honorarium of Luis Obregón. June 15, 1898). Each individual was charged a fee of 75 centavos by the state for the titles; almost half of the villagers in Zacapu declared themselves unable to pay it (AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Pátzcuaro. Volume 5. Ministry of Government memorandum. March 17, 1903).

52 AHPEM. District of Pátzcuaro. Volume 10. Gustavo Roth to Ministry of Government. October 13, 1896. Volume 5. Teódulo Torres to Governor of Michoacán. November 27, 1899. Treasurer's Office to Ministry of Government. December 6, 1899. Ministry of Government to Teódulo Torres. January 17, 1900. AGN. CNA. Resoluciones Presidenciales. Volume 28. October 8, 1925.

53 State officials informed the villagers that such rental agreements were prohibited until the parcels had actually been defined and distributed (AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Zacapu. Volume 3. Dionisio Orozco and others to the Governor of Michoacán. October 13, 1902. Ministry of Government to Dionisio Orozco and others. November 7, 1902).

54 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Zacapu. Volume 4. José Dolores Heredia and others to the Governor of Michoacán. July 5, 1882.

55 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Zacapu. Volume 4. Severiano Valencia and others to the Governor of Michoacán. September 25, 1876.

56 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Zacapu. Volume 3. Agustín Pérez to the Governor of Michoacán. February 4, 1894. Pérez had been sent to Zacapu to assess some lands targeted for foreclosure. His observations with respect to the abuses of García were ignored by the government, including the fact that while García had taken communal lands worth 40,000 pesos, only 1500 pesos had been subtracted from the village's tax assessment.

57 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Zacapu. Volume 4. Statement of District Prefect. September 26, 1875.

58 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Zacapu. Volume 4. District Prefect to Ministry of Government. November 3, 1877.

59 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Zacapu. Volume 4. Minutes of community meeting. October 14, 1878. José Dolores Regalado to the Governor of Michoacán. October 15, 1878. Ministry of Government to District Prefect. October 31, 1878. Residents of Zacapu to the Governor of Michoacán. November 25, 1878. Benito Martínez to the Governor of Michoacán. October 27, 1885. Severiano Valencia and others to Governor of Michoacán. February 15, 1879.

60 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Pátzcuaro. Volume 7. Severiano Valencia and others to the Governor of Michoacán. April 10, 1882. Sacramento Torres Yañez and others to the Governor of Michoacán. June 19, 1882. District of Zacapu. Volume 4. District Prefect to Ministry of Government. June 20, 1882. Minutes of July 4, 1882 community meeting. July 25, 1882. Ministry of Government to District Prefect. August 9, 1882. District Prefect to Ministry of Government. August 10, 1882.

61 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Zacapu. Volume 4. José Dolores Heredia and others to the Governor of Michoacán. July 5, 1882.

62 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Zacapu. Volume 4. District Prefect to Ministry of Government. December 11 and 16, 1882.

63 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Zacapu. Volume 4. Benito Martínez to District Prefect. May 24, 1887.

64 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Zacapu. Volume 4. Bruno Patino to the Governor of Michoacán. October 1, 1875. Residents of Zacapu to the Governor of Michoacán. November 25, 1878. Benito Martínez to Governor of Michoacán. October 27, 1885. District of Pátzcuaro. Volume 10. June 16, 1880. Volume 7. State Treasurer to Ministry of Government. February 3, 1882. It was in the interest of the villagers to claim communal land as private property for tax purposes, since nearly all of the plots farmed under usufruct rights would have been much too small to be subject to the tax on private property. Thus tax officials concluded, possibly accurately, that the villagers were simply trying to avoid paying taxes. The assessment was finally lowered to 30,900 pesos in 1890, on the grounds that a considerable amount of Zacapu's lands had, in fact, been alienated to outsiders such as Rafael García Jaso. AHPEM. Hijuelas. Office of Public Revenues. Tax account for the village of Zacapu. April 15, 1890.

65 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Zacapu. Volume 4. Minutes of community meeting. August 5, 1887.

66 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Zacapu. Volume 3. Ministry of Government to District Prefect. May 12, 1893. José Dolores Heredia and others to the Governor of Michoacán. July 5, 1893.

67 District Prefect to Ministry of Government. June 8, 1893. Ministry of Government to District Prefect. August 3, 1893. Sacramento Torres Yañez and Eduvirgis Martínez to Governor of Michoacán. December 31, 1893. Ministry of Government to Governor of Michoacán. January 4, 1894.

68 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Zacapu. Volume 3. State Treasurer to Ministry of Government. January 29, 1894.

69 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Pátzcuaro. Volume 10. Gustavo Roth to Ministry of Government. October 13, 1896.

70 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Pátzcuaro. Volume 10. Gabriel Avila to the Governor of Michoacán. January 5, 1897.

71 The members of this faction also acquired control over communal property for themselves, as when José Dolores Heredia appropriated land belonging to the village hospital (a confraternity typically dedicated to the Virgin of the Immaculate Conception) without authorization. AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Zacapu. Volume 3. District Prefect to Ministry of Government. September 3, 1895.

72 AGN. Papeles Presidenciales. Obregón-Calles. 818-N-12. Eduardo and Alfredo Noriega. La desecación de la Ciénaga de Zacapu y las leyes agrarias. 1923.

73 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Pátzcuaro. Volume 10. Miguel Cupa, Felipe Aparicio, and Agustín Regalado and others to Governor of Michoacán. February 9, 1897.

74 State Treasurer to Ministry of Government. July 10, 1897. Volume 5. Francisco Elguero on behalf of Eduardo Noriega to the Governor of Michoacán. December 2, 1898.

75 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Pátzcuaro. Volume 5. Teódulo Torres to Governor of Michoacán. November 27, 1899. Treasurer's Office to Ministry of Government. December 6, 1899. Ministry of Government to Teódulo Torres. January 17, 1900. AGN. CNA. Resoluciones Presidenciales. Volume 28. October 8, 1925.

76 AGN. Papeles Presidenciales. Obregón-Calles. 818-N-12. Primo Tapia, Tomás Cruz, Crispin Serrato and others to President Plutarco Elias Calles. September 4, 1925.

77 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Pátzcuaro. Volume 5. Treasurer's Office to Ministry of Government. May 1, 1900.

78 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Pátzcuaro. Volume 5. Teódulo Torres to the Governor of Michoacán. April 29, 1900.

79 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Pátzcuaro. Volume 5. Antonio Donato and others to the Governor of Michoacán. October 15, 1900. The Valencia/Heredia faction claimed that Teódulo Torres, representing the Martínez faction, had also alienated communal land as well.

80 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Pátzcuaro. Volume 5. Gabriel Avila to the Ministry of Government. September 7, 1900.

81 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Pátzcuaro. Volume 5. Ministry of Government to José Dolores Heredia. November 27, 1900. District Prefect to Ministry of Government. December 10, 1900. Gabriel Avila to Governor of Michoacán. December 28, 1900. Heredia's proposal that he be authorized to compile the census was, however, rejected.

82 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Zacapu. Volume 1. District Prefect to Ministry of Government. January 20, 1904.

83 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Zacapu. Volume 3. District Prefect to Ministry of Government. August 5, 1902. District of Pátzcuaro. Volume 5. Ministry of Government to District Prefect. December 25, 1902. Felipe Ortega to the Governor of Michoacán. January 15, 1903. Ministry of Government to District Prefect. January 29, 1903. Antonio Aguilar Gallo to Governor of Michoacán. September 22, 1903.

84 AHPEM. Hijuelas. District of Pátzcuaro. Volume 5. District Prefect to Ministry of Government. August 25, 1903. District of Zacapu. Volume 1. State Treasury to Ministry of Government. November 12, 1904. State Treasury to Ministry of Government. October 24, 1904.

85 This would change in the early years of the 20th century: with the development of transportation infrastructure in the late Porfiriato, the communal woodlands of the highlands became attractive to forestry companies. In San Juan Parangaricutiro, the Ortíz and Equihua families attempted to rent the woodlands to Santiago Slade's forestry company "Bosques Mexicanos." The contract was bitterly contested by the majority of the villagers, culminating in 1909, known as the año de la quemazón (year of the burning) when over half of the houses were burned in an attempt to force the villagers to accept the contract. See Moheno (1985) and the documents in AHPEM, Hijuelas, District of Uruapan, Volume 20.